Measures of the same outcome not only can have different wording and items, but also can measure functioning over different time periods or contexts. The results of Harlow's experiments indicated that this early maternal deprivation led to serious and irreversible emotional damage. In the case of disagreements, inclusion or exclusion was resolved by discussion and consultation with a third independent reviewer (author MO). [16] found higher emotional functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group. This pattern suggests a potential publication bias present in which disproportionately more positive findings are in the published studies than the unpublished theses [78]. Exclusion criteria were then used to select articles based on the following (in order): (1) irrelevant to study topic; (2) assessed an excluded study population (psychiatric service dogs, therapy dogs, emotional support dogs, or companion dogs); (3) did not report quantitative outcomes from assistance dog placement (literature reviews, instrument development, not original research); (4) reported unrelated outcomes (puppy raising, service dog training, or animal-related outcomes); (5) reported only non-psychosocial outcomes (medical or physical); (6) methodological exclusions (qualitative, case studies, single-subject design); (7) no full text available. Table 6 summarizes vitality outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general energy/vitality and sleep. However, methodological rigor did not significantly differ by study design (t(25) = -0.940, p = 0.356). Using a different measure of emotional functioning, Rodriguez et al. When reporting statistical results, 78% of studies (21/27) provided estimates of variability for outcomes, including confidence intervals, standard deviations, or standard error of the mean. One of the first reviews published by Modlin in 2000 [7] summarized nine published quantitative and qualitative studies on the benefits of guide dogs, hearing dogs, and mobility service dogs on their handlers (omitting unpublished theses). Of 15 cross-sectional studies that surveyed individuals who owned assistance dogs for variable periods of time, 4/15 studies (27%) considered length of time of assistance dog ownership as a potential explanatory or moderating variable in analyses. Using the Reintegration to Normal Living Index [RNLI; 59], Hubert found improvements in the ability to return to normal life after 7-months with a mobility service dog while Vincent et al. Animal Domestication: Animal domestication is when humans take animals from the wild and keep them over successive generations in controlled environments where the animals are always available to humans. Most articles were published in the 2010s, indicating an increasing publication interest in this topic over time. Grey literature was addressed by searching ProQuest Dissertations and Theses (ProQuest) and WorldCatDissertations and hand searching the abstracts of the International Society for Anthrozoology and International Association of Human Animal Interactions Organizations conferences. Our objective was to identify, summarize, and methodologically evaluate studies quantifying the psychosocial effects of assistance dogs for individuals with physical disabilities. As the field of animal-assisted intervention is multidisciplinary, a wide and extensive search was conducted encompassing medical and scientific databases. 2016 Jul 20;91(2):453-66. A common argument against the use of animals in experiments is that animals are not good models for humans, based on the observation that we are not simply larger versions of lab rats - our bodies (and minds) work differently. [15] found improvements to daily work activities 3- and 12-months after receiving mobility service dog (but not in self-care or dealing with life events). Although outcomes from assistance dog placement for children and adolescents have been quantified with qualitative [e.g., 6971] and observational [e.g., 72] study designs, effects on standardized measures of psychosocial wellbeing including social functioning have not been explored. Author KR then coded 100% of articles. Finally, most studies (21/27;78%) compared outcomes to a control or comparison condition. Brought to you by Sciencing Unnecessary Cruelty Animal rights advocates argue that testing on animals is cruel and unnecessary. Using the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], Guest found increased self-reported vigor 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog and less fatigue 3-months after receiving a hearing dog. Inconsistencies in findings were discussed in terms of wide variability in assessment times, interventions, measures, and rigor, and recommendations were made to contribute to the knowledge of this growing application of the human-animal bond. He is currently the chair of APAs Committee on Animal Research and Ethics. The CES-D asks participants to rate how often they had experienced 20 depressive symptoms in the prior week using statements such as I thought my life had been a failure, while the POMS asks participants to rate from not at all to extremely how they feel right now using single words such as sad and unhappy. It is also possible that some standardized measures do not capture the intended effects from having an assistance dog. While results described positive effects of service dogs in terms of social, psychological, and functional benefits for their handlers, it was concluded that all 12 of the studies had weak study designs with limitations including lack of comparison groups, inadequate description of the service dog intervention, and nonstandardized outcome measures. Other studies assessed outcomes from hearing dogs (7/27; 26%), guide dogs (4/27; 15%), and medical alert/response service dogs (2/27; 7%). [35] found increased functioning 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Shintani et al. In introduction sections, all studies described an objective, but only 17/27 (63%) of studies stated a directional hypothesis. However, only 44% (12/27) of studies reported statistical values (e.g. In the overall quality of life sub-category, 2/8 (25%) comparisons were significant. In terms of general vitality and energy, four studies used the SF-36 to measure the effect of having an assistance dog on the vitality domain. Inability to draw cause-and-effect conclusions: The biggest disadvantage of naturalistic observation is that determining the exact cause of a subject's behavior can be difficult. It is unreasonable to assume that the changes to an individuals life following receipt of an assistance dog is identical for all ages, gender identities, backgrounds, and disabilities. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, In addition to the different human and dog phenotypes that contribute to this heterogeneity, there are likely differences in the strength of the human-animal bond and attachment relationships formed between assistance dogs and handlers [19, 76]. Dr. Advancing psychology to benefit society and improve lives. Unfortunately, many introductory textbooks don't give the full picture of animal research. You can learn more about some of this research, as well as the ethical and regulatory issues that are involved, by consulting online resources such as Speaking of Research. S1 Table. Regarding social participation, 14 comparisons were made in which 4/14 were significant (29%). mobility or guide), thus restricting human participants to a single category of impairments. Interestingly, only one included study [16] assessed outcomes from participants under the age of 18. The process of animal model building, development and evaluation has rarely been addressed systematically, despite the long history of using animal models in the investigation of neuropsychiatric disorders and behavioral dysfunctions. In these studies, positive findings (i.e., better social functioning in those with an assistance dog compared to a control group) may be partially attributed to an unmeasured variable driving the group difference [77]. Yarmolkevich [46] found a significant effect of having a guide dog on positive affect using the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience [SPANE; 49] compared to a control group, while others studies found no effect of having a hearing dog [29] or mobility service dog [39] on affect via the Positive and Negative Affect Scale [PANAS; 50]. In a few instances, they represent the only reasonable approach. Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York, United States of America, Affiliation: To describe study characteristics, extracted items included participant characteristics (sample size, age, gender, country of origin), assistance dog characteristics (type and provider), and details of the study (design, measurement time points, comparison conditions). However, almost all positive findings were accompanied by a null finding using the same or similar standardized measure in a different study. Part of the justification for why nonhuman animals are studied in psychology has to do with the fact of evolution. Abstract. Limitations and Benefits of Psychological Research on Animals Many people see animal testing as a cruel and inhumane practice. Overall, sample sizes were higher than what is usually observed in targeted animal-assisted intervention studies with dogs (e.g. Of 27 studies, 19 (70%) reported outcomes a quality of life measure with a total of 13 different standardized measures used. Of 27 studies, 18 (67%) reported outcomes a standardized measure of social health with a total of 18 different standardized measures. Using other standardized measures of independence, Matsunaka & Koda [42] found that those with guide dogs reported and lower stress while being mobile. Therefore, future studies are warranted that specifically assess health and wellbeing using validated parent-proxy or self-report measures to fully understand the potential effects that assistance dogs can have on children and adolescents with disabilities. The five studies which found that pet owners were less depressed had, on average, many fewer participants (Mean = 401 subjects ) than the studies that found no difference in depression rates (Mean . The most commonly used measure was the Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique [CHART; 58] which assesses how people with disabilities function as active members of their communities. However, increasingly modern methods allow the 3R principle of reducing, refining and replacing animal experiments to be put into practice . Plants lack a nervous system and therefore cannot be used to learn about psycho- logical phenomena. To achieve the first aim of the reviewto describe study characteristicswe extracted several features of from each study and article (Table 1). Most studies (15/27; 56%) were conducted in the United States, followed by the United Kingdom (6/27; 22%). Neither of these early reviews employed a formal methodological assessment of studies, but limitations were listed for each included study. To achieve the third aim of the reviewto summarize outcomespsychosocial outcomes within each study were extracted. Center for the Human-Animal Bond, College of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America, Current address: Human-Animal Bond in Colorado, School of Social Work, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America, Affiliation: Of the 44 positive comparisons, 36 (82%) were from published papers and 8 (18%) were from unpublished theses. [35] found no improvement 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, Donovan [28] found no improvement 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog, and Shintani et al. Six studies used standardized measures to assess general health and health symptoms, three of which [17, 28, 35] reported null findings on the general health domain of the RAND 36-Item Short Form Health Survey [SF-36; 47]. In the self-evaluation subcategory, 5/19 (26%) outcomes found a significant effect of having an assistance dog on standardized measures of self-esteem, self-concept, and other measures of self-evaluation. Data from 5,191 children were included in the study; 2,236 lived in homes with a dog or cat, and 2,955 lived in households that did not include any animals. Studies on psychiatric service dogs, emotional support dogs, and pet dogs were excluded. Assistance Dogs International (ADI) defines three types of assistance dogs, of which we use as terminology in this review: guide dogs who assist individuals with visual impairments, hearing dogs who assist individuals with hearing impairments, and service dogs who assist individuals with disabilities other than blindness or deafness [3]. We found that studies reported mostly psychological outcomes (74%), followed by social outcomes (67%), quality of life outcomes (70%), and vitality (26%) outcomes. Many times animals have been tested on a drug and the drug was considered not harmful. The lack of guide dog-specific research is especially surprising given that guide dogs not only have the longest history of any type of assistance dog [61] but are also the most commonly placed assistance dog placed by professional facilities worldwide [2]. broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. However, it is of note that several methodological weaknesses of the studies make it difficult to draw any definitive conclusions, including inadequate reporting and a failure to account for moderating or confounding variables. Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for psychological Research. Research has indicated that beyond the physical or tangible benefits that an assistance dog is trained to provide (e.g. Additionally, research suggests the relationship between an assistance dog and its owner may also serve as a reciprocal attachment and caregiving relationship characterized by secure and strong attachments [18, 19]. The rhesus monkey connectome predicts disrupted functional networks resulting from pharmacogenetic inactivation of the amygdala. Ethical Considerations and Advances in the Understanding of Animal Cognition. Only 6/27 (22%) reported any estimates of effect size in their results. The three Rs. Capitanios research interests are focused on developing naturally-occurring nonhuman primate models of psychological processes, in order to better understand the underlying biology of phenomena such as loneliness, inhibited temperament and poor social functioning. In fact, positive findings were identified in all domains and sub-domains of psychosocial health and wellbeing. In terms of emotional functioning, two studies found positive results using the SF-36 role emotional domain; Lundqvist et al. After the initial title and abstract review, articles were screened based on full text. Although this tendency occurs in many fields, the file-drawer bias may especially be prevalent in human-animal interaction research due to the preconceived notion that animals are beneficial for humans [80]. Two of the most well-known animal studies were conducted by Konrad Lorenz and Harry Harlow. Finally, information regarding the ethical and regulatory environments in which animal research is conducted is covered in a superficial manner or omitted altogether. Included studies assessed psychosocial outcomes via standardized measures from assistance dogs that were trained for functional tasks related to a physical disability or medical condition (omitting psychiatric service dogs or emotional support dogs). A study such as this not only helps us better understand how the brain works, but it also has enormous potential for developing treatments for people who have abnormal patterns of brain activity, such as those with epilepsy or Parkinsons disease. An analysis of 147 statistical comparisons across the domains of psychological health, quality of life, social health, and vitality found that 68% of comparisons were null, 30% were positive in the hypothesized direction, and 2% were negative. Animal studies in psychology. The study of nonhuman animals has actually played a huge role in psychology, and it continues to do so today. Table 4 summarizes the social outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general social functioning, loneliness, and social participation. Equally important is the consideration of the potential harms to humans of not doing the research. [43] found that individuals who had guide dogs reported less stress while walking, but not while using public transportation. The other four studies reported no changes in participants mental health 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35], 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28], and 7-months after receiving a hearing or mobility service dog [32]. Overall, most (68%) of comparisons made across studies were null in which no statistical difference was found in the outcome compared to before getting an assistance dog or compared to a control group. t, F, or B values) and only 55% (15/27) of studies reported exact probability values from analyses. Four studies found no effect of having a hearing dog [29] or mobility service dog [39, 41] on the UCLA Loneliness Scale. The remaining studies were quasi-experimental in that they did not use randomized assignment to treatment or control groups. We also planned to extract or manually calculate effect sizes to create funnel plots to investigate potential publication biases. After receiving an assistance dog, individuals retrospectively report increases to their social, emotional, and psychological health [e.g., 1012]. Articles were extracted for information based on three aims to describe study characteristics, assess methodological rigor, and summarize outcomes. r/psychology How to get your children to eat more fruits and vegetables: Children will eat more fruits and vegetables if families take more time to eat meals. However, Guest et al. Importantly, unpublished theses had a similar average sample size as published studies, with similar power to detect effects compared to published studies. Animal models are a fundamental tool in the life sciences. Therefore, in the cases where positive outcomes were reported in these studies, it is unknown what amount of time with an assistance dog the finding was associated with (and therefore difficult to compare to findings from other studies). For the study of most cognitive functions, lesion studies in animals have and will likely continue to provide insights that cannot be obtained through research on humans. Regarding sleep, Guest found better self-reported sleep quality 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog while Rodriguez et al. Using the occupation domain of the CHART, Rintala et al. While results described positive effects of service dogs in terms of social, psychological, and functional benefits for their handlers, it was concluded that all 12 of the studies had weak study designs with limitations including lack of comparison groups, inadequate description of the service dog intervention, and nonstandardized outcome measures. They argue that all life is sacred and animals go through a lot of distress during experiments in which they involuntarily take part. Our second aim was to evaluate the methodological rigor of studies. Longitudinal assessment time points were varied. This practice was instrumental in our evolution and in the emergence of civilization. A study protocol was designed a-priori to define the search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and items for data extraction. Because medical service dogs are a relatively new category of assistance dog placements [2], there has been less research on the psychosocial effects of medical alert and response service dogs on their handlers. Further, as publication bias and the file-drawer effect is an often referenced weakness of the HAI literature [22], two dissertation and thesis databases and abstracts of two conferences were searched for unpublished studies. Summary of vitality outcomes across studies ordered by sub-category, then by standardized measure. If you've taken an introductory psychology class, then you have probably read about seminal psychological research that was done with animals: Skinner's rats, Pavlov's dogs, Harlow's monkeys. However, these are relatively new categories of assistance dogs [2], many of which may also be self-trained [62], and it appears that emerging research on this population has centered on medical benefits [63] rather than psychosocial. Can you really generalise results from animals to humans? Why is animal psychology important? In parallel with an increasing amount of research quantifying the therapeutic benefits of companion dogs and therapy dogs on human health and wellbeing [5, 6], there has been an increased focus on quantifying the physical, psychological, and social effects that assistance dogs may have on their handlers [79]. [66, 67]) but smaller than that of pet dog research [68]. Ten years from now, students may very well read in their textbooks about a new treatment to help people with Parkinsons disease. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they assessed outcomes from guide, hearing, medical, or mobility service dogs, if they collected original data on handlers psychosocial functioning, and if the outcome was measured quantitatively with a validated, standardized measure. The most notable weaknesses included a lack of adequate reporting in the methodological sections, which not only limits interpretation of findings but prevents reproducibility. However, inclusion and exclusion criteria were less commonly described (17/27; 63%). This effect may be compounded by the possibility that those who apply for an assistance dog may inherently have certain positive characteristics (e.g., stable housing, stable finances, has a familial support system) that contribute to overall psychosocial health. Of 58 total psychological outcomes, 21 (37%) were positive (improved or better psychological health in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 37 (63%) were null (no difference), and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse functioning in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Humans share common ancestry with the species most commonly studied in psychology: mice, rats, monkeys. Assistance dog categories (guide, hearing, mobility, and medical) were collapsed for the purposes of this review, but undoubtedly contribute to the lives of individuals with disabilities in diverse ways. [14] which found significantly higher internal locus of control 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog. Future studies should provide detailed researcher-specified criteria for participation as well as organizational-specified criteria for placing/receiving an assistance dog, if applicable. Of 12 total vitality comparisons, 6 (50%) were positive (improved or better vitality in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 6 (50%) were null (no difference) and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse vitality in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Advantages And Disadvantages Of Case Studies Psychology Essay. The roles of dogs to assist in improving human wellbeing continue to expand. A majority of studies (18/27; 67%) assessed outcomes from mobility service dogs for individuals with physical disabilities. of Agriculture, and, at the local level by Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs). However, because case studies are often based on a single individual or small group, they may not be representative of the larger population. Compared to those on the waitlist, individuals with an assistance dog report better psychosocial functioning and wellbeing [16, 17]. [32] found no difference in occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a mobility service dog and Milan [41] found no group difference in those with and without a mobility service dog. found significantly lower depression and anxiety using the POMS and GHQ-30, respectively, 6-months after receiving a hearing dog [13]. Many studies did not confirm that participants across groups were statistically equivalent on key demographic variables such as age and sex/gender before conducting statistical analyses. Even if we accept evolutionary psychology, humans have evolved to be very different from most other animals, perhaps all other animals. e0243302. Future research will benefit from stronger methodological rigor and reporting to account for heterogeneity in both humans and assistance dogs as well as continued high-quality replication. In addition, many studies did not account for confounding variables such as having a pet dog, the progressiveness or type of disability, or relationship status. Visual display of methodological ratings for N = 27 studies ordered by the number of studies addressing each item. Future research should specify not only ethical protocols for human subjects research, but also for animal subjects, which is often underutilized and/or underreported in AAI research [73]. The deprived monkeys became unable to integrate socially, unable to form attachments, and were severely emotionally disturbed. Summary of methodological ratings for N = 27 studies ordered by reporting section (. Study designs included both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, with only one randomized longitudinal study identified [14]. Therefore, the current literature is limited to correlational, rather than causal conclusions regarding the benefits of assistance dogs on the psychosocial health of their owners. Will this monkey study, which enabled such a discovery to be made, be described? Importantly, only a few comparisons were made in the negative direction (2%) indicating that there is limited reason to believe that acquiring an assistance dog is associated with worse functioning. Even procedures as simple as drawing a blood sample or testing an animal on a cognitive task must be approved by the local IACUC before the work can begin. alerting or responding to medical crises such hypoglycemia or seizures), and individuals with mental health disorders (e.g. In the mobility domain, only Milan [41] found a significant effect of having a mobility service dog on the CHART mobility domain (which includes hours per day out of bed and days per week out of the house) while Davis [44] and Rintala et al. Apprehension around burgeoning medical research in the late 1800s and the first half of the 20 th century sparked concerns over the use of humans and animals in research , .Suspicions around the use of humans were deepened with the revelation of several exploitive research projects, including a series of medical . Specifically, this review sought to systematically identify, summarize, and evaluate studies assessing psychosocial outcomes from owning an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) with measures tested for reliability and validity among individuals with physical disabilities. found better social functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [16] while Guest found improved social functioning 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog [13]. Second, only 63% of studies described inclusion and/or exclusion criteria of recruited participants, and some studies did not report all demographic or disability characteristics of participants. The first emphasizes that the welfare of animals is important in its own right and that animals must be treated humanely. Of 34 total quality of life outcomes, 9 (26%) were positive (improved or better quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 22 (65%) were null (no difference) and 3 (9%) were negative (decreased or worse quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Because of the broad inclusion criteria, the 27 studies were widely varied in terms of human and dog participants, assessment time points, statistical analyses, and standardized outcomes.
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