Zh () is the ability to see what is right and fair, or the converse, in the behaviors exhibited by others. "[32], Confucianism conciliates both the inner and outer polarities of spiritual cultivation, that is to say self-cultivation and world redemption, synthesised in the ideal of "sageliness within and kingliness without". [132] He praised Confucian ethics and politics, portraying the sociopolitical hierarchy of China as a model for Europe.[132]. For example, the impact of the Vietnam War on Vietnam was devastating, but over the last few decades Vietnam has been re-developing in a very fast pace. Mao Zedong tried to suppress Confucianism, a philosophy that guided state and personal behaviour for centuries. [14], Tin (), a key concept in Chinese thought, refers to the God of Heaven, the northern culmen of the skies and its spinning stars,[36] earthly nature and its laws which come from Heaven, to "Heaven and Earth" (that is, "all things"), and to the awe-inspiring forces beyond human control. [108] In Against Political Equality, Tongdong Bai complements this account by using a proto-Rawlsian "political difference principle". The Master said, "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it.". Tongdong Bai presents an in-between solution by proposing a two-tiered bicameral system. To Confucius, the junzi sustained the functions of government and social stratification through his ethical values. "[141] The gender roles prescribed in the Three Obediences and Four Virtues became a cornerstone of the family, and thus, societal stability. [114] Jiang's aim is to construct a legitimacy that will go beyond what he sees as the atomistic, individualist, and utilitarian ethos of modern democracies and ground authority in something sacred and traditional. Referred to variously as the Confucian hypothesis and as a debated component of the more all-encompassing Asian Development Model, there exists among political scientists and economists a theory that Confucianism plays a large latent role in the ostensibly non-Confucian cultures of modern-day East Asia, in the form of the rigorous work ethic it endowed those cultures with. Traditionally, cultures and countries in the East Asian cultural sphere are strongly influenced by Confucianism, including China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, as well as various territories settled predominantly by Han Chinese people, such as Singapore and Myanmar's Kokang. "You are wide off the mark! Bell proposes a model wherein aspiring meritocrats take hyper-selective exams and prove themselves at the local levels of government before reaching the higher levels of government, where they hold more centralized power. Confucianism is a philosophy developed in 6th-century BCE China, which is considered by some a secular-humanist belief system, by some a religion, and by others a social code. Religious Landscape Study. The aim of this study is to analyze the influence of Confucianism on health behaviors, health outcomes and medical decisions. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. What is the Difference Between Daoism and Confucianism? What the superior man requires is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect." Over the following centuries the system grew until finally almost anyone who wished to become an official had to prove his worth by passing a set of written government examinations. [14] Y (; ) is the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good. The scholarly tradition envisioned by Confucius can be traced to the sage-kings of antiquity. In 771 bce, however, they were forced to move their capital eastward to present-day Luoyang to avoid barbarian attacks from Central Asia. Xi has expressed hope that China's "traditional cultures" of Confucianism, . Confucius may have initiated a cultural process known in the West as Confucianism, but he and those who followed him considered themselves part of a tradition, later identified by Chinese historians as the rujia, scholarly tradition, that had its origins two millennia previously, when the legendary sages Yao and Shun created a civilized world through moral persuasion. [149][150][151] Many traditional commentators and modern scholars have debated over the precise meaning of the passage, and whether Confucius referred to all women or just certain groups of women. Yet there are four seasons going round and there are the hundred things coming into being. In fact, Confuciuss sense of history was so strong that he saw himself as a conservationist responsible for the continuity of the cultural values and the social norms that had worked so well for the idealized civilization of the Western Zhou dynasty. [76] With the Zhou dynasty, which overthrew the Shang, the name for the supreme godhead became Tian ( "Heaven"). Become a member. Like many contemporaries, Confucius saw ritual practices as efficacious ways to access Tian, but he thought that the crucial knot was the state of meditation that participants enter prior to engage in the ritual acts. [30] Rn, translated as "humaneness" or the essence proper of a human being, is the character of compassionate mind; it is the virtue endowed by Heaven and at the same time the means by which man may achieve oneness with Heaven comprehending his own origin in Heaven and therefore divine essence. This line of thought would have influenced all Chinese individual and collective-political mystical theories and practices thereafter. He had faith in the cumulative power of culture. Partly because of the vitality of the feudal ritual system and partly because of the strength of the royal household itself, the Zhou kings were able to control their kingdom for several centuries. Sometimes viewed as a philosophy and sometimes as a religion, Confucianism may be understood as an all-encompassing way of thinking and living that entails ancestor reverence and a profound human-centred religiousness. Cloud State University, that is "paused" while the university conducts a review. This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. [103], Another new idea, that of meritocracy, led to the introduction of the imperial examination system in China. [158] The Dominicans and Franciscans argued that Chinese ancestral worship was a form of idolatry that was contradictory to the tenets of Christianity. [42] He wrote in the Analects (7.23) that tin gave him life, and that tin watched and judged (6.28; 9.12). So, in light of Xi's call for Confucianism to benefit society in concrete ways, private . Confucianism holds one in contempt, either passively or actively, for failure to uphold the cardinal moral values of rn and y. The junzi disciplines himself. [44] This is shown in the story where Duke Jing of Qi asks Confucius about government, by which he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony. Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue in a morally organised world. This "cult of chastity" accordingly condemned many widows to poverty and loneliness by placing a social stigma on remarriage. This elaborate system of mutual dependence was based on blood ties, marriage alliances, and old covenants as well as on newly negotiated contracts. Especially the works of Liu Zhi such as Tinfng Dinl () sought to harmonise Islam with not only Confucianism but also with Taoism and is considered to be one of the crowning achievements of the Chinese Islamic culture.[133]. The literature opposes those who prefer evaluation by peers to evaluation by superiors, with some thinkers including quasi-democratic selection mechanisms along the way. [112] This system aligns with what Harvard historian James Hankins calls "virtue politics", or the idea that institutions should be built to select the most competent and virtuous rulersas opposed to institutions concerned first and foremost with limiting the power of rulers.[113]. Confucianism is concerned with finding "middle ways" between yin and yang at every new configuration of the world. [97], Confucianists historically tried to proselytize to others,[98] although this is rarely done in modern times. This may be true especially in times of social chaos, such as during the period of the Ming-Qing transition. "[71], According to He Guanghu, Confucianism may be identified as a continuation of the Shang-Zhou (~1600256 BCE) official religion, or the Chinese aboriginal religion which has lasted uninterrupted for three thousand years. Confucius (551479 BCE) appeared in this period of political decadence and spiritual questioning. This did not exclude martial arts culture. Roger T. Ames and Henry Rosemont, Jr.. Kim said that filial piety is one-sided and blind, and if it continues, social problems will continue as government keeps forcing Confucian filial obligations onto families. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confucianism, ChinaKnowlwdge.de - Confucius and Confucianism, Asia Society - Center for Global Education - Confucianism, Ancient History Encyclopedia - Confucianism, United Religions Initiative - Confucianism. In Seiji Naya and Akira Takayama, eds. At the cultural level, for instance, Confucianism, its institutions, and its rituals offer bulwarks against atomization and individualism. [14], Yn Hu, Confucius's most outstanding student, once asked his master to describe the rules of rn and Confucius replied, "one should see nothing improper, hear nothing improper, say nothing improper, do nothing improper. As the potential leader of a nation, a son of the ruler is raised to have a superior ethical and moral position while gaining inner peace through his virtue. Some of the basic Confucian ethical concepts and practices include rn, y, and l, and zh. During the Han dynasty (206BCE 220CE), Confucian approaches edged out the "proto-Taoist" HuangLao as the official ideology, while the emperors mixed both with the realist techniques of Legalism.[4]. On spirituality, Confucius said to Chi Lu, one of his students: "You are not yet able to serve men, how can you serve spirits? Confucianism was initiated by the disciples of Confucius, developed by Mencius (c. 372-289 BCE) and inherited by later generations, undergoing constant transformations and restructuring since its establishment, but preserving the principles of humaneness and righteousness at its core. The research was conducted using the following databases: PubMed, Scopus, CINHAL, PsycINFO and Web of Science, without restrictions of language and year of publication. That Confucius admitted students of different classes as disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures that defined pre-imperial Chinese society. Although transformed over time, it is still the substance of learning, the source of values, and the social code of the Chinese. The term Confucianism is derived from Confucius, the conventional name for Master Kong, the most revered sage of this religious tradition. In a much-discussed passage, women are grouped together with xiaoren (, literally "small people", meaning people of low status or low moral) and described as being difficult to cultivate or deal with. The appeal to cultural values and social norms for the maintenance of interstate as well as domestic order was predicated on a shared political vision, namely, that authority lies in universal kingship, heavily invested with ethical and religious power by the mandate of heaven (tianming), and that social solidarity is achieved not by legal constraint but by ritual observance. It remains the social code of the Chinese and continues to influence other countries particularly Korea Japan and Vietnam. Similarly, the lower house allows citizens to be represented, have a voice in public affairs (albeit a weak one), and ensure accountability. The population had lost faith in the official tradition, which was no longer perceived as an effective way to communicate with Heaven. This reinvigorated form was adopted as the basis of the imperial exams and the core philosophy of the scholar-official class in the Song dynasty (9601297). Grades 5 - 8 Subjects Religion, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations Image Confucian Philosopher Mencius [138] Leftists during the Cultural Revolution described Confucius as the representative of the class of slave owners. An estimated 5 to 6 million people follow Confucianism worldwide. NAS counts a total of 108 Confucius Institutes that have closed or are in the process of closing, along with the stated reason for the closure. [120], Another key question is whether Confucian political thought is compatible with liberalism. [106] Faced with ever-increasing complexity at scale, modern societies must build hierarchies to coordinate collective action and tackle long-term problems such as climate change. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 159. They uphold that its modern transformation, as a creative response to the challenge of the West, is a continuation of its classical formulation and its medieval elaboration. In so doing he attempted to redefine and revitalize the institutions that for centuries had been vital to political stability and social order: the family, the school, the local community, the state, and the kingdom. Just as Rawls claims that economic inequality is justified so long as it benefits those at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder, so Bai argues that political inequality is justified so long as it benefits those materially worse off. Although only 2% are adherents of Christianity, it is becoming a popular alternative. "[112] Bell and Wang argue that this combination conserves the main advantages of democracyinvolving the people in public affairs at the local level, strengthening the legitimacy of the system, forcing some degree of direct accountability, etc.while preserving the broader meritocratic character of the regime. [88] Kang modeled his ideal "Confucian Church" after European national Christian churches, as a hierarchic and centralised institution, closely bound to the state, with local church branches, devoted to the worship and the spread of the teachings of Confucius. Yuri Pines. The Taiping Rebellion described Confucianism sages as well as gods in Taoism and Buddhism as devils. [83] In his view, the power of Tian is immanent, and responds positively to the sincere heart driven by humaneness and rightness, decency and altruism. ", Volume I: The Ancient Eurasian World and the Celestial Pivot, Volume II: Representations and Identities of High Powers in Neolithic and Bronze China, Volume III: Terrestrial and Celestial Transformations in Zhou and Early-Imperial China, "The Religiousness of "Confucianism" and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today", "Kang Youwei: The Martin Luther of Confucianism and His Vision of Confucian Modernity and Nation", "To Inherit the Ancient Teachings of Confucius and Mencius and Establish Modern Confucianism", "The Civil Theology of Confucius' "Tian" Symbol", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry: Confucius, Oriental Philosophy, "Topic:Confucianism", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Confucianism&oldid=1152735062, This page was last edited on 2 May 2023, at 00:15. The Zhou belief in the mandate of heaven (the functional equivalent of the will of the Lord on High) differed from the divine right of kings in that there was no guarantee that the descendants of the Zhou royal house would be entrusted with kingship, for, as written in the Shujing (Classic of History), heaven sees as the people see [and] hears as the people hear; thus, the virtues of the kings were essential for the maintenance of their power and authority. [citation needed], In South Korea, there has long been criticism. Besides the waning Zhou ritual system, what may be defined as "wild" ( y) traditions, or traditions "outside of the official system", developed as attempts to access the will of Tian. It is exemplified by a normal adult's protective feelings for children. [107], Bell and Wang propose two justifications for political hierarchies that do not depend on a "one person, one vote" system. Some scholars also consider the reconstruction of lineage churches and their ancestral temples, as well as cults and temples of natural and national gods within broader Chinese traditional religion, as part of the renewal of Confucianism. Some examples include "to tame", "to mould", "to educate", "to refine". . said the share of the world's population living in autocracies had risen from . In 9.5 Confucius says that a person may know the movements of the tin, and this provides with the sense of having a special place in the universe. It focuses on innate human goodness and the importance of interpersonal human relationships. As Confucianism was able to nourish the population and civilization, during the Han Dynasty, emperor Wu Di (reigned 141-87 BC) made Confucianism the official state ideology. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Should the ruler be surrounded by xiaoren as opposed to junzi, his governance and his people will suffer due to their small-mindness. These movements are not a part of mainstream Confucianism, although the boundary between Chinese folk religion and Confucianism can be blurred. Confucius himself did not propose that "might makes right", but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. "Windows into China," John Parker, p. 25. [109], Bell, Wang, and Bai all criticize liberal democracy to argue that government by the people may not be government for the people in any meaningful sense of the term. [89], Other forms of revival are salvationist folk religious movements[90] groups with a specifically Confucian focus, or Confucian churches, for example the Yidan xuetang () of Beijing,[91] the Mengmutang () of Shanghai,[92] Confucian Shenism ( Rzng Shnjio) or the phoenix churches,[93] the Confucian Fellowship ( Rjio Dotn) in northern Fujian which has spread rapidly over the years after its foundation,[93] and ancestral temples of the Kong kin (the lineage of the descendants of Confucius himself) operating as Confucian-teaching churches.[92]. [41], Regarding personal gods (shn, energies who emanate from and reproduce the Tin) enliving nature, in the Analects Confucius says that it is appropriate (; ; y) for people to worship ( jng) them,[45] though through proper rites (; ; l), implying respect of positions and discretion. Roy Tseng, drawing on the New Confucians of the twentieth century, argues that Confucianism and liberal democracy can enter into a dialectical process, in which liberal rights and voting rights are rethought into resolutely modern, but nonetheless Confucian ways of life. The superior man [Junzi] cannot care about the everything, just as he cannot go to check all himself! RELIGION AS A PERCENTAGE OF WORLD POPULATION: 0.1 percent OVERVIEW. [129][131], Confucianism influenced the German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who was attracted to the philosophy because of its perceived similarity to his own. Confucius saw an opportunity to reinforce values of compassion and tradition into society. Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, and it is the main concern of a large number of stories. While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. Real power thereafter passed into the hands of feudal lords. Also, the Hong Kong Confucian Academy, one of the direct heirs of Kang Youwei's Confucian Church, has expanded its activities to the mainland, with the construction of statues of Confucius, Confucian hospitals, restoration of temples and other activities.
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